According to Edward Said, Orientalism do not exist. The West created the Orient in order to impose their superiority and domination.
It is also related to the narratology, explaining that the Orient is created and narrated by the West, with only aim to exert po
dimanche 30 novembre 2008
Phases of Intercultural conflict
There are five stages of the intercultural conflict:
- The latent conflict: exposing the conditions leading to the conflict, giving the different values, different beliefs...
- The perceived conflict: the frustation period, lead by the differences awareness.
- The felt conflict: the envolvment of emotional reactions.
- The manifest conflict: conflict behaviors are exhibited, by aggression, verbal display. The conflict is officially recognized. The communication skills and the peacemaking abilities are used.
- The conflict aftermath: outcomes of conflict, which can be productive or counter productive.
A conflict is a useful process when appropriate communication skills and conflict management are used.
Intercultural Dissonance
I/ The Traditional Societies
- Have all the time, take their time
- Following the seasons cycle
- Nature determines their days
- No mechanical schedules
- They have to finish what they have to do
- COLLECTIVISM - They manage their time and days on season cycle. The nature determines their days and there is no human implication or influence.
II/ Post-traditional Societies (Modern Societies)
- Time is money
- Following the clock
- People regulate their days related to the clock
- Society governed by clock
- Time limitation (clock)
- INDIVUALISM - refering to the tendency of a culture to emphasize the importance of the individual identity over the group identity
Understanding Cultures and Conflicts
In 1951, Talcott Parsons, an American sociologist published the book "Social System" where he developped the theory of the Core Cultural Ressources based on beliefs, values, attitutes and actions. When communicating, different people, from different cultures got different assymptions, which lead to conflicts.
There are two types of conflicts:
- The functional conflict, being the efficient model where the conflicts are solved. The conflict and the discussion are direct (US). The low context lead the conflict to get solved by people outside the conflict, not linked to the persons nor the conflict.
- The disfunctional conflict, characterized by a repression and an accumulation of the conflict. (Morocco) The high context lead the conflict to be solved by a subjective person, and emphasizing on actions. The person who can solve the problem is connected to both sides.
There are two types of conflicts:
- The functional conflict, being the efficient model where the conflicts are solved. The conflict and the discussion are direct (US). The low context lead the conflict to get solved by people outside the conflict, not linked to the persons nor the conflict.
- The disfunctional conflict, characterized by a repression and an accumulation of the conflict. (Morocco) The high context lead the conflict to be solved by a subjective person, and emphasizing on actions. The person who can solve the problem is connected to both sides.
Conflict Negociation between cultures
This part, concerning the conflict negociation target two different societies and cultures: the independant society (like the USA), and the interdependant society (as Morocco or China).
I/ The independant society: - It targets a self-focused, ego-based and self-expressive society and culture.
- It also describes an individualist society, following a low context, meaning they have many connection but in a short period of time.
To mention that an individualist society is characterized by a free market economy (as the economic model) and from a democratic country (as the political model)
- The low context society is following a linear logic, and direct verbal interaction. People have an individual sense of autonomy.
- They are M-time negociation people, meaning that the conflict is controlled, and they follow their schedule.
- They have "I" based values.
II/ The interdependant society: - It targets a group-interest, group-respons and group-norms society and culture.
- It also describes a collectivist society, following a high context, meaning they have close connections over a long period of time, and their interests are following the group harmony.
- The high context society is following a spiral logic, and subtile non-verbal nuances.
- They are P-time negociation people, meaning that the conflict is controlled, but they take their time. The concept of time is not important.
- They have "WE" based values.
Digital Divide, ICTs and the Leapfrogging theory
According to the UNESCO, Digital Divide refers to inequality of access and unequal diffusion of technologies within and among nations of the world.
That is wy the ICTs have been developped. The ICTs (Information and Communication Technologies) are technics used for the transmission of information, targetting principally information, the Internet and telecommunications.
ICTization is the the concept of mainstreaming of ICTs, presented in three stages:
- the info-density: infrastructures of ICT.
- the info-use: adoption and use of those ICTs.
- the info-state: digital gap.
According to the ITU (International Telecommunication Union), the Digital Divide creates a gap between those who benefit from the Digital Technology and those who do not.
There is also the Content-Divide, targetting the access divide, the economical divide, the democratic and skills divides.
Digital Divide is a problem especially for countries of the South. Some solutions have been developped as the $100 laptop, or mobile phone, ways to bring technologies into more isolated and poor countries and regions in the world.
As said Ikbal Kadir: "connectivity means productivity". The mobile phone for example seems to be a weapon against poverty but also economic help being a production tool.
the Leapfrogging theory is important to take into concideration. In fact, major developped countries have followed the "classic" development, moving from an agricultural society, to an industrialised society with the industrial revolution, and finally being a knowledge society. The leapfrogging theory present the fact that undevelopped countries should jump the industrial revolution and develop their knowldege society.
In fact, I think that the ICTs are the future. They develop creativity, communication and productivity. This has been seen with Egyptian women, now able to sell what they produce thanks to cell phone, and without neglecting their activities. It gave to those women more responsabilities, more freedom and more independancy. It developped the process of the rights of work for those women.
That is wy the ICTs have been developped. The ICTs (Information and Communication Technologies) are technics used for the transmission of information, targetting principally information, the Internet and telecommunications.
ICTization is the the concept of mainstreaming of ICTs, presented in three stages:
- the info-density: infrastructures of ICT.
- the info-use: adoption and use of those ICTs.
- the info-state: digital gap.
According to the ITU (International Telecommunication Union), the Digital Divide creates a gap between those who benefit from the Digital Technology and those who do not.
There is also the Content-Divide, targetting the access divide, the economical divide, the democratic and skills divides.
Digital Divide is a problem especially for countries of the South. Some solutions have been developped as the $100 laptop, or mobile phone, ways to bring technologies into more isolated and poor countries and regions in the world.
As said Ikbal Kadir: "connectivity means productivity". The mobile phone for example seems to be a weapon against poverty but also economic help being a production tool.
the Leapfrogging theory is important to take into concideration. In fact, major developped countries have followed the "classic" development, moving from an agricultural society, to an industrialised society with the industrial revolution, and finally being a knowledge society. The leapfrogging theory present the fact that undevelopped countries should jump the industrial revolution and develop their knowldege society.
In fact, I think that the ICTs are the future. They develop creativity, communication and productivity. This has been seen with Egyptian women, now able to sell what they produce thanks to cell phone, and without neglecting their activities. It gave to those women more responsabilities, more freedom and more independancy. It developped the process of the rights of work for those women.
mardi 18 novembre 2008
Al Jazeera, the Arab media "island"
The last decade has witnessed a change in the media landscape of almost all countries of the Arab world.
The Arab world television channel knew three phases of development: the formative phase (1954-1975), the national expension (1976-1990) with the propaganda of nation, and the regional and global expension, as it is the case of Al Jazeera.
In fact, Al Jazeera has been created in 1996 in Doha, Qatar. It is diffused in more than 35 countries, counting countries of the Middle East and Europe. Al Jazeera is seen as the "voice of Islamism", in order to give to the world, especially Europe and the United States, an other perspective of Muslims and Arabs views. However, in Arab countries, Al Jazeera is seen as pro-American.
Al Jazeera developped its global connectivity by opening four web sites, and many Google pages. Since the war in Iraq, Al Jazeera knew more and more visitors in their web sites, and people started asking more questions to the channel. It became an international channel, an international and global media player.
The Arab world television channel knew three phases of development: the formative phase (1954-1975), the national expension (1976-1990) with the propaganda of nation, and the regional and global expension, as it is the case of Al Jazeera.
In fact, Al Jazeera has been created in 1996 in Doha, Qatar. It is diffused in more than 35 countries, counting countries of the Middle East and Europe. Al Jazeera is seen as the "voice of Islamism", in order to give to the world, especially Europe and the United States, an other perspective of Muslims and Arabs views. However, in Arab countries, Al Jazeera is seen as pro-American.
Al Jazeera developped its global connectivity by opening four web sites, and many Google pages. Since the war in Iraq, Al Jazeera knew more and more visitors in their web sites, and people started asking more questions to the channel. It became an international channel, an international and global media player.
Globalisation by Anthony Giddens
I would only present two theorists approaches developped by Anthony Giddens concerning Globalisation, which are the sceptics and the radicals.
The sceptics see the phenomenon of globalisation as a fictive phenomenon that does not really exist, saw as "too much noise for nothing". For them, internal trade is more important and developped than external trades. There is more trade between regions of a countries than trades between different countries. Today, the global economy is manaeged by the government, intervening in the economy becoming the political economy.
The radicals see globalisation as a phenomenon that is occuring, but at the same time creating a sort of anarchy manifestated by a loose of sovereignty and the end of the nation state. Globalisation occurs in an economical way, goods, and services being influenced by the political life. However, the government is ejected from the political life, presenting a decline of the state power (the supranational institution took power over the state).
The sceptics see the phenomenon of globalisation as a fictive phenomenon that does not really exist, saw as "too much noise for nothing". For them, internal trade is more important and developped than external trades. There is more trade between regions of a countries than trades between different countries. Today, the global economy is manaeged by the government, intervening in the economy becoming the political economy.
The radicals see globalisation as a phenomenon that is occuring, but at the same time creating a sort of anarchy manifestated by a loose of sovereignty and the end of the nation state. Globalisation occurs in an economical way, goods, and services being influenced by the political life. However, the government is ejected from the political life, presenting a decline of the state power (the supranational institution took power over the state).
Some important aspects of Global Communication
Diffusion of innovation: It is a process where an innovation/technology/theory, will be spread among people through a communication channel (way of diffusion), domestication of technology (adoption), time, and social system.
Hegemony: It is associated to the Italian marxist Gramsci. It is defined as the fact that the dominant social group in a soceity has the capacity to intellectual and moral leadership. It is especially impacting three areas, being the education schools, religion, and Mass Media.
The US hegemony is defined as a cultural invasion. An example can be that 85% of cinema tickets are for American/Hollywood movies.
The strategies used in order to protect a cultural product (hegemony vs. autonomy) are quotas, subsidies and grants, reglional alliances, and resistance.
The three dimensions of Media:
- International Media Coverage: Media are reporting events.
- Comparative Media: comparison between media systems.
- Communication for development: ICTs for Development.
Commodification: Commercialization of cultures. Cultures are becoming products to be sell.
Hibridity: mixture of cultures.
Public Sphere: Developped by Jugen Habermas in 1962. It is the transformation of public opinion. It emerged in France and United Kingdom when starting to discuss political and economical issues. Public Spheres should be independent from two institutions, the state and the church.
CNN Effect: It is the impact on media agenda and the effect on political agenda. It is the agenda setter for the media.
Reaganomics: An economical philosophy used in order to reduce taxes and minimize state power. The government should not interfere or regulate.
Policy: A policy is a plan of action for treating political and economical issues like telecommunication, intellectual property rights and mass media.
Hegemony: It is associated to the Italian marxist Gramsci. It is defined as the fact that the dominant social group in a soceity has the capacity to intellectual and moral leadership. It is especially impacting three areas, being the education schools, religion, and Mass Media.
The US hegemony is defined as a cultural invasion. An example can be that 85% of cinema tickets are for American/Hollywood movies.
The strategies used in order to protect a cultural product (hegemony vs. autonomy) are quotas, subsidies and grants, reglional alliances, and resistance.
The three dimensions of Media:
- International Media Coverage: Media are reporting events.
- Comparative Media: comparison between media systems.
- Communication for development: ICTs for Development.
Commodification: Commercialization of cultures. Cultures are becoming products to be sell.
Hibridity: mixture of cultures.
Public Sphere: Developped by Jugen Habermas in 1962. It is the transformation of public opinion. It emerged in France and United Kingdom when starting to discuss political and economical issues. Public Spheres should be independent from two institutions, the state and the church.
CNN Effect: It is the impact on media agenda and the effect on political agenda. It is the agenda setter for the media.
Reaganomics: An economical philosophy used in order to reduce taxes and minimize state power. The government should not interfere or regulate.
Policy: A policy is a plan of action for treating political and economical issues like telecommunication, intellectual property rights and mass media.
World-System Theory and Dependency Theory
The world-system theory has been created and developed by Immanuel Wallerstein, stating that the under-development of southern countries (countries of the south) is due to their role and hierarchical place in the international economical order. The international, global economy is now characterized by the core (being at the center), the periphery and the semiperiphery.
This world-system is also presented as the dependency theory, since it presents the fact that northern countries developed a historical and economical process making the southern countries dependant of them. Immanuel Wallerstein stated that rich and powerful countries need poor and undeveloped countries in order to assure their development and economical growth. It can also be defined as “any historical social system of interdependent parts that form a bounded structure and operate according to distinct rules”. In other words, a world-system is a unit composed of multiple and different systems dependent from each others. Nowadays world-system is a world-economy. Economy is the strongest and more powerful linkages between the different components of today system. Today world-system is a “capitalist world-economy” because the world market, global market is in the center of the power.
The world-system theory presents globalization as one common and global market containing various nations and different cultures. There is however a labor hierarchy of the world-system. In fact, there are the core states constituting the powerful and rich countries. They are concentrating high educated people, high developed skills, important production and capital, and also strong and powerful army and military armies, like the case of the United States and Japan, being the two of the stronger core states because of their important national economy spread worldwide. They are very developed and industrialized countries. It controls and leads productivity, and they own the surplus of the entire world-economy.
Then, there are the peripheral areas, concentrating fragile states, “low skill and labor-intensive production” states, but also weak army countries. Peripheral areas are very dependent on the core, contrary to semiperipheral areas, being stronger states and much more diversified in their economy. The peripheral countries are illustrated by countries that have been colonized and controlled by other states. Those countries, being independent recently still cannot be totally independent and still need the support of other countries, the core area states. The system is structured in a way that the entire system is completely linked.
However, following the dependency theory, rich and developed countries need smaller and poor countries in order to increase their development, and at the same time, poor and weak countries need rich and powerful countries to follow them in order for them (poor, non developed countries) to develop their economical standing. So, if those poor countries make into practice the concept of leapfrogging, then the poor countries would develop more rapidly, and at the end, in a decade, won’t need the rich countries to improve economically.
This world-system is also presented as the dependency theory, since it presents the fact that northern countries developed a historical and economical process making the southern countries dependant of them. Immanuel Wallerstein stated that rich and powerful countries need poor and undeveloped countries in order to assure their development and economical growth. It can also be defined as “any historical social system of interdependent parts that form a bounded structure and operate according to distinct rules”. In other words, a world-system is a unit composed of multiple and different systems dependent from each others. Nowadays world-system is a world-economy. Economy is the strongest and more powerful linkages between the different components of today system. Today world-system is a “capitalist world-economy” because the world market, global market is in the center of the power.
The world-system theory presents globalization as one common and global market containing various nations and different cultures. There is however a labor hierarchy of the world-system. In fact, there are the core states constituting the powerful and rich countries. They are concentrating high educated people, high developed skills, important production and capital, and also strong and powerful army and military armies, like the case of the United States and Japan, being the two of the stronger core states because of their important national economy spread worldwide. They are very developed and industrialized countries. It controls and leads productivity, and they own the surplus of the entire world-economy.
Then, there are the peripheral areas, concentrating fragile states, “low skill and labor-intensive production” states, but also weak army countries. Peripheral areas are very dependent on the core, contrary to semiperipheral areas, being stronger states and much more diversified in their economy. The peripheral countries are illustrated by countries that have been colonized and controlled by other states. Those countries, being independent recently still cannot be totally independent and still need the support of other countries, the core area states. The system is structured in a way that the entire system is completely linked.
However, following the dependency theory, rich and developed countries need smaller and poor countries in order to increase their development, and at the same time, poor and weak countries need rich and powerful countries to follow them in order for them (poor, non developed countries) to develop their economical standing. So, if those poor countries make into practice the concept of leapfrogging, then the poor countries would develop more rapidly, and at the end, in a decade, won’t need the rich countries to improve economically.
Global Communication Theories and some personal point of view
What is a theory? What is a paradyme?
A theory is used to explain social reality. It could be socially constructed, or developped by a person for a specific purpose, a focused function.
A paradyme is an approach to some phenomena that provides a group of scholars a way of looking at something.
Now that we defined briefly those two concepts, some theories about Global Communication can be presented.
In fact, concerning the Media System in the world, there are four important models:
The Authoritarian model, being the model used in China describe a system where the government literally owns Media. There are some limits to media freedom, illustrated by censorship and punishment by goverment. Media can not criticize the government. Media system is repressed, and the government takes the decision about what can be said and published.
The Libertarian model, illustrated by the United States believe in the free press theory and the free market place. The media is free, and the government has no right to interfere, influence of control. Media attacks on the government policies are fully accepted.This model seems to be utopian for me, since I believe that the media is not really free and independant. Politics have important impact on the society, the economy, and even the media. The concept of freedom is real in the surface, but deep inside, politic is there, and goverment too, in a way or another.
The Soviet Union model, like in the ex Soviet Union (today Russia), where the media has to serve the interests of the working class. It is a kind of dictatorship. There is no real public sphere, and the use of propaganda for political parties. The government has a certain role in the media, and nothing can pass on without the approval of the government. Can be giving the example of Anna Politkovskaya, the Russian journalist who wanted to denounce some aspects of the Russian government and who was disturbing the political leaders. She has been killed because she wanted to talk and denounce some political decisions that were against human rights.
The Social Responsability model, highly developped in social democracies like in Europe, define media as being a tool to inform, tell the truth, being objectif and accurate. Medias have a certain obligation toward the society. The government and media are closely related in the sense that they are "working together", helping each other in order to give the best information to its population.
The three paradymes that exist in Global communication are: The Modern theory, defining the complete freedom of the media. It target capitalist, Western oriented countries. The Marxist theory, defining the dependancy of the media, and the Globalisation theory, defining the critical public sphere.
One other important theory is the Modernization theory, developped by Daniel Lerner. This theory express the fact that the differences between the countries of the North (modern societies) and the countries of the South (traditional societies) are caused by cultural differences. This theory explain the reason of undevelopment in traditional societies, being essencially caused by their cultural retardation in areas like politics, economics, and infrastrustures. Those countries promote tradition rather than innovation and that is one reason for their undervelopment. According to Talcott Parsons, are concidered developped countries that put frontiers between different spheres of activities. Other countries that still put complicity between politics and media, laws and economics are the one undevelopped (traditional societies). However, the modernism of some countries and the cultural retardation of others can be explained by the emperialism and colonialism era, giving to the modern societies the role of dominators and colonisors; the traditional societies being the colonized and dominated ones.
A theory is used to explain social reality. It could be socially constructed, or developped by a person for a specific purpose, a focused function.
A paradyme is an approach to some phenomena that provides a group of scholars a way of looking at something.
Now that we defined briefly those two concepts, some theories about Global Communication can be presented.
In fact, concerning the Media System in the world, there are four important models:
The Authoritarian model, being the model used in China describe a system where the government literally owns Media. There are some limits to media freedom, illustrated by censorship and punishment by goverment. Media can not criticize the government. Media system is repressed, and the government takes the decision about what can be said and published.
The Libertarian model, illustrated by the United States believe in the free press theory and the free market place. The media is free, and the government has no right to interfere, influence of control. Media attacks on the government policies are fully accepted.This model seems to be utopian for me, since I believe that the media is not really free and independant. Politics have important impact on the society, the economy, and even the media. The concept of freedom is real in the surface, but deep inside, politic is there, and goverment too, in a way or another.
The Soviet Union model, like in the ex Soviet Union (today Russia), where the media has to serve the interests of the working class. It is a kind of dictatorship. There is no real public sphere, and the use of propaganda for political parties. The government has a certain role in the media, and nothing can pass on without the approval of the government. Can be giving the example of Anna Politkovskaya, the Russian journalist who wanted to denounce some aspects of the Russian government and who was disturbing the political leaders. She has been killed because she wanted to talk and denounce some political decisions that were against human rights.
The Social Responsability model, highly developped in social democracies like in Europe, define media as being a tool to inform, tell the truth, being objectif and accurate. Medias have a certain obligation toward the society. The government and media are closely related in the sense that they are "working together", helping each other in order to give the best information to its population.
The three paradymes that exist in Global communication are: The Modern theory, defining the complete freedom of the media. It target capitalist, Western oriented countries. The Marxist theory, defining the dependancy of the media, and the Globalisation theory, defining the critical public sphere.
One other important theory is the Modernization theory, developped by Daniel Lerner. This theory express the fact that the differences between the countries of the North (modern societies) and the countries of the South (traditional societies) are caused by cultural differences. This theory explain the reason of undevelopment in traditional societies, being essencially caused by their cultural retardation in areas like politics, economics, and infrastrustures. Those countries promote tradition rather than innovation and that is one reason for their undervelopment. According to Talcott Parsons, are concidered developped countries that put frontiers between different spheres of activities. Other countries that still put complicity between politics and media, laws and economics are the one undevelopped (traditional societies). However, the modernism of some countries and the cultural retardation of others can be explained by the emperialism and colonialism era, giving to the modern societies the role of dominators and colonisors; the traditional societies being the colonized and dominated ones.
The Era of News Agencies
News agencies' goal is to bring information to the medias. They hire journalists who collect information in different ways, and distribute it to medias.
The oldest News Agency is the Agence France-Presse (AFP), founded in 1835 by the French Charles Luis Havas. Two of this employees, Julius Reuters and Benhard Wolff would later create their own agencies respectively in London in 1851 and Berlin in 1849 and become rivals with the AFP.
During the World War I, the radio became the tool used in order to monopolize the people. In fact, the radio was used for proppaganda especially that radio was cheap and could be sold to mass scale.
In 1938, the BBC has been created in order to fight against the nazi Germans, and used as a platform to mobilise people against Germany.
The oldest News Agency is the Agence France-Presse (AFP), founded in 1835 by the French Charles Luis Havas. Two of this employees, Julius Reuters and Benhard Wolff would later create their own agencies respectively in London in 1851 and Berlin in 1849 and become rivals with the AFP.
During the World War I, the radio became the tool used in order to monopolize the people. In fact, the radio was used for proppaganda especially that radio was cheap and could be sold to mass scale.
In 1938, the BBC has been created in order to fight against the nazi Germans, and used as a platform to mobilise people against Germany.
The birth of Global Communication
Global Communication as we know it today took its time to develop, as did humans. In fact, communication technologies were not available before, and the world was confronted to the geography of space. It was a real barrier to communication in the past. Today, the world is facing three different societies: the traditional society(taking the example of Morocco), the modern society(taking the example of France) and the post-modern society(taking the example of Japan). The geography of space was a obstacle for both movement of information, but also movement of people.
The German Johannes Gutenberg invented the printing press in 1450. This invention was very important for the diffusion of text and knowledge. At that time, the only books he could work on was the Bible, but it was the beginning of a news era and a new Global Communication face by simply spreading information the way he could.
There has been another important protagonist in the history of Global Communication: Benedict Anderson. In fact, he focused his constructivist approach on nationalism, targeting the question of "imaginary collectivism". In fact, he defined the nation as being an "imaginary political community" where people who don't even know each other feel part of the same group (community). He explained this phenomenon by three cultural conceptions: religion, the end of dynasties, and the conception of time (time becoming mesurable). This cultural consciousness found its power in the development of capitalism, thanks to the development of a new communication technology as the printing press and the development of vernacular languages. For him, the success of nationalism is the combination of universalism and individualism.
The German Johannes Gutenberg invented the printing press in 1450. This invention was very important for the diffusion of text and knowledge. At that time, the only books he could work on was the Bible, but it was the beginning of a news era and a new Global Communication face by simply spreading information the way he could.
There has been another important protagonist in the history of Global Communication: Benedict Anderson. In fact, he focused his constructivist approach on nationalism, targeting the question of "imaginary collectivism". In fact, he defined the nation as being an "imaginary political community" where people who don't even know each other feel part of the same group (community). He explained this phenomenon by three cultural conceptions: religion, the end of dynasties, and the conception of time (time becoming mesurable). This cultural consciousness found its power in the development of capitalism, thanks to the development of a new communication technology as the printing press and the development of vernacular languages. For him, the success of nationalism is the combination of universalism and individualism.
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